Alkaloids A class of over 3,000 nitrogen-containing chemicals (such as caffeine and cocaine) that are produced by plants but have effects in humans and animals.

Amino acids A class of 20 chemical units that are the building blocks of peptides and proteins.

Amylase An enzyme found in saliva that breaks down starch into simple sugars.

Anabolic A type of reaction or series of reactions in which complex molecules are synthesized from
simpler ones; the opposite of catabolic.

Aquaculture The underwater cultivation of animals and plants for food or for other purposes.

-ase A suffix common to many, but not all, enzymes.

Atom The smallest particle of matter that maintains the property of an element in the periodic table;
atoms are composed of subatomic particles called electrons, neutrons, and protons, which themselves are composed of even tinier subatomic particles such as quarks.

ATP Adenosine triphosphate; the energy currency of metabolism in all organisms.

ATP synthase An enzyme in mitochondria that produces ATP by adding a phosphate group to the
molecule ADP.

Base A nitrogen-containing building block of DNA; the two types are the purines adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the pyrimidines thymine (T)and
cytosine (C).

Bi A prefix meaning two.

Biochemistry The scientific study of the chemistry of living cells, tissues, organs, and organisms.

Biochip An electronic device containing organic materials.

Biopolymer In a living organism, any large molecule (such as a protein, nucleic acid, lipid, or polysaccharide) made from smaller parts.

Biosensor A system or device that detects a chemical or chemicals in a biological material.

Biotechnology The industrial use of living organisms or biological methods derived through basic research; examples range from genetic engineering to making cheese or bread.

Bond Physical forces holding together two atoms in a molecule.

Carbohydrate A chemical compound made up of a chain or ring of carbon atoms to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms are attached in a defined ratio (2:1); includes simple sugars like glucose and complex sugars like chitin (the exoskeleton of crabs).

Carbohydrate biology A branch of chemistry dedicated to the study of the many types of
carbohydrate molecules.

Catabolic A type of reaction or series of reactions in which complex molecules are broken down into
simpler ones; the opposite of anabolic.

Catalyst A substance that speeds up a chemical or biochemical reaction that would have occurred
anyway (without help), but at a much slower rate; enzymes are biological catalysts.

Catalytic antibody An antibody that speeds up a chemical reaction; also called “abzymes,” these antibodies use a molecule called a hapten to mimic the middle, “transition” state of a reaction.

Chaperone Any of a class of proteins that helps proteins fold or escorts proteins or other
molecules throughout the cell.

Chirality The ability of a chemical substance to exist in two mirror-image forms, each of which
rotates polarized light in opposite directions.

Cholesterol A lipid unique to animal cells that is used in the construction of cell membranes and
as a building block for some hormones.

Clinical trial A scientific study in which physician-researchers study the effects of
potential medicines on people; usually conducted in three phases (I, II, and III) that determine safety, whether the treatment works, and if it’s better than current therapies, respectively.

Cofactor A helper molecule (either inorganic, such as a metal ion, or organic, such as a vitamin) required by an enzyme.

Combinatorial chemistry The random assembly of various chemical units into large so-called
“libraries” of new synthetic compounds.

Coprophile A feces-loving organism.

Covalent bond A force that holds together two or more atoms, formed when electrons travel
between the atoms’ nuclei (and are thus “shared”).

Cyanobacteria A type of bacteria living in damp soil or rocks, or fresh or salt water, that
performs photosynthesis, a process in which light, energy, water, and
carbon dioxide are converted into oxygen and carbohydrates (sugars).

Di- A prefix meaning two.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) A double-stranded molecule that encodes genetic information; composed
of four nucleotides containing the bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).

DNA polymerase An enzyme that copies, and sometimes repairs, DNA.

Double bond A type of covalent bond in which a pair of atoms shares two pairs of
electrons.

Electrolyte A charged molecule (such as a sodium or potassium ion) that is present
in body fluids.

Element A component of the periodic table; a pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.

Enantiomer One of two “mirror images” of a chiral molecule.

Endotoxin Any of a class of lipids found in the outer membranes of gram-negative
bacteria; in people, the toxins cause diarrhea and/or septic shock.

Enterococci Intestinal bacteria that are often resistant to the antibiotic vancomycin.

Enzyme A molecule that acts as a catalyst, speeding up biochemical reactions.

Fluorescence The property of giving off light at a particular wavelength (emission wavelength) when illuminated by light of a different wavelength (excitation wavelength).

Forensic science The application of scientific knowledge to questions of civil and criminal law.

Genetic engineering The manipulation of an organism’s genes—introducing,
eliminating, or changing them—using modern molecular biology techniques.

Glycolipid A lipid covalently linked to a sugar.

Glycoprotein
A protein covalently linked to a sugar.

Glycosaminoglycan
A large molecule found on the surface of membrane-encased cells that
consists of a network of long, branched chains of sugars and smaller,
nitrogen-containing molecules.

Hexa- A prefix meaning six.

Host-guest
chemistry A branch of chemistry in which researchers study the
interactions between two molecules (natural or synthetic) with the goal
of either mimicking or blocking a biological effect caused by the
molecules’ interaction.

Hydrocarbon
An organic molecule consisting of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.

-ine A suffix common to many of the amino acids.

Inflammation
The body’s reaction to noxious stimuli or foreign particles, resulting
in swelling, redness, and pain.

Inorganic
Describing a substance not derived from a living organism and/or not
composed of carbon and hydrogen (a hydrocarbon).

In silico
Literally “within silicon”; refers to modeling research conducted with computers only.

Ion An electrically charged atom.

Ionic bond A
force that holds together two electrically charged atoms (called ions).

Lipid A fatty, waxy, or oily compound that will not dissolve in water; it contains
hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, but proportionally far less oxygen than carbohydrates.

Lipid A A key component of lipopolysaccharide.

Lipo- A prefix meaning “lipid,” or fat.

Lipopolysaccharide
An integral part of the outer cell membrane of certain types of
bacteria (so-called gram-negative strains).

Mass
spectrometry A technique used to determine the composition and
abundance of the atoms in a molecular substance, starting with a very
small amount of sample.

Metabolic
engineering The targeted and purposeful alteration (using
genetic engineering techniques) of an organism’s metabolic pathways in
order to better understand how the pathways work or to redesign them to
produce a different set of products.

Metabolism A
set of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a living organism that builds and
breaks down organic molecules, producing or consuming energy in the
process.

Metabolite A
chemical intermediate in metabolic reactions.

Model organism
A bacterium, animal, or plant used by scientists to study basic
research questions; common model organisms include yeast, flies, worms,
frogs, and fish.

Nano- A prefix meaning one-billionth.

Nanotechnology
A branch of science and engineering devoted to the design and
production of extremely small electronic devices and circuits built
from individual atoms and molecules.

Neoglycopolymer
A glycoprotein mimic; a synthetic molecule consisting of polymers with
carbohydrates attached.

Nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy A technique used to study the
physical, chemical, and biological properties of matter; in this
method, scientists subject a molecule to a strong magnet and watch what
happens to the atoms that make up the molecule, which provides
information about the molecule’s composition.

Nucleic acid
A large molecule composed of units of nucleotides; includes both RNA
and DNA.

Nucleotide A
subunit of RNA or DNA containing a base, a phosphate, and a sugar;
thousands of nucleotides link up to form a molecule of DNA or RNA.

Olefin metathesis A chemical reaction in which all of the double
bonds in a hydrocarbon molecule are broken and then rearranged.

Oligosaccharide
A molecule made up of several simple sugars linked together.

Organic
Carbon-containing.

Organic chemistry A branch of
chemistry dedicated to the study of the structures, synthesis, and
reactions of carbon-containing compounds.

Organophosphate
A class of toxic organic molecules containing phosphate, and often
fluoride, that are used as insecticides and nerve gases (such as
sarin); many of these molecules block the action of an enzyme
(acetylcholinesterase) that recycles an important brain chemical called
acetylcholine.

-ose A suffix common to many carbohydrates.

Oxo-or oxy- Prefixes meaning oxygen-containing.

Peptide A molecule consisting of a chain of amino acids; a small protein fragment.

Peptide bond
The chemical link joining amino acids in peptides and proteins.

Peptidomimetic
A chemical compound that mimics the ability of a peptide to recognize
certain physiological molecules, such as proteins and DNA.

Pharmacogenetics
The study of how people’s genetic make-up affects their response to
medicines.

Phenylketonuria
A genetic disorder in which the body cannot break down the amino acid
phenylalanine; abbreviated PKU.

Phosphate group
A chemical unit consisting of an atom of phosphate bound to four oxygen
atoms; often attached to other biological molecules, such as proteins,
sugars, and lipids.

Phospho- A prefix meaning phosphate-containing.

Phospholipid
A lipid made up of glycerol and fatty acids, with a phosphate group attached.

Phosphotriesterase
A bacterially produced enzyme that breaks down organophosphates like sarin.

Physiology
The study of how living organisms function.

Plasma membrane
The membrane that separates the contents of a cell from its outside
environment; it consists of a double layer of phospholipids with
embedded proteins.

Polymer A large molecule formed by combining many similar, smaller molecules.

Polysaccharide
Any of a class of carbohydrates consisting of chains of simple sugars.

Product A substance formed as the result of a chemical reaction.

Protecting group
A removable chemical unit used by synthetic chemists to purposefully
cover up certain regions of a molecule so they do not react with other
compounds during a reaction.

Protein A large
molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific
order and folded shape determined by the sequence of nucleotides in the
gene encoding the protein.

Protein synthesis The process in which the genetic code carried by
messenger RNA directs cellular organelles called ribosomes to produce
proteins from amino acids.

Reaction rate
A measure of how fast a chemical reaction occurs.

Ribonucleotide reductase The enzyme in all organisms that catalyzes the conversion of nucleosides to deoxynucleosides.

RNA (ribonucleic acid)
A chemical found in cells that serves as an intermediate in the
synthesis of proteins.

Structural biology A branch of biology dedicated to the study of the
three-dimensional structures of proteins and other molecules to help
understand the function of these molecules in the cell.

Substrate A molecule acted upon by an enzyme.

Suicide substrate An enzyme substrate that itself is not toxic but that produces a toxic metabolic product.

Superoxide dismutase A copper-and zinc-containing enzyme present in all
oxygen-using organisms that scavenges free radicals and converts them
into hydrogen peroxide and oxygen.

Synthetic chemistry A branch of chemistry in which chemists devise ways
to make specific compounds of interest and/or develop new chemical
reactions for this purpose.

Toxin A poisonous substance.

Transition state
The activated form of a molecule that has partly undergone a chemical
reaction.

Tri- A prefix meaning three.

van der Waals force A weak physical force that holds together two molecules
or two different parts of the same molecule.

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